Politicians, planners and agricultural scientists are unanimous in making their posi tion clear on agricultural development as the precursor of overall development in Nepal. The emotional plea usually comes out as a sound byte loud enough to be heard by anybody who counts and one who can think in this country. And that's where it ends. The result of last forty years of plan11ed development is in front of everybody to evaluate along with the rhetoric and some truth of giving agricultural sector top priority. Nepal is still one of the poorest countries in the world. The agricultural production has not kept pace with population growth and the productivity of major food grains has been stagnant. The country has become the net importer of food grain from the exporter status. Constraints, emerging trends, potential for increased productivity of cereals and strategy to secure food security in Nepal has been discussed.

Politicians, planners and agricultural scientists are unanimous in making their posi tion clear on agricultural development as the precursor of overall development in Nepal. The emotional plea usually comes out as a sound byte loud enough to be heard by anybody who counts and one who can think in this country. And that's where it ends. The result of last forty years of plan11ed development is in front of everybody to evaluate along with the rhetoric and some truth of giving agricultural sector top priority. Nepal is still one of the poorest countries in the world. The agricultural production has not kept pace with population growth and the productivity of major food grains has been stagnant. The country has become the net importer of food grain from the exporter status. Constraints, emerging trends, potential for increased productivity of cereals and strategy to secure food security in Nepal has been discussed.

Agriculture development in Nepal began about 95 years back. It was organized more scientifically in 1953. Since then, various kinds of agriculture development have taken place. Agriculture production is not increasing sharply as compared to population growth. Similarly, the status of agricultural scientists is not growing on line with other technical profession. Personal views are expressed here how they can be improved on observing the history of agriculture development of Nepal.

Agriculture development in Nepal began about 95 years back. It was organized more scientifically in 1953. Since then, various kinds of agriculture development have taken place. Agriculture production is not increasing sharply as compared to population growth. Similarly, the status of agricultural scientists is not growing on line with other technical profession. Personal views are expressed here how they can be improved on observing the history of agriculture development of Nepal.

For the first time in Nepal's history, increased milk production has been a problem. The Government owned Dairy Development Corporation (DDC) is resorting to so-called Milk Holidays to conceal their mounting incompetence on the one end, and the dairy farmers are resorting to street protests to ensure necessary market for their expanding milk production on the other. What a big surprise to one who had experienced the critical situation of Nepal's Milk Market of 1970's and 1980's..............

For the first time in Nepal's history, increased milk production has been a problem. The Government owned Dairy Development Corporation (DDC) is resorting to so-called Milk Holidays to conceal their mounting incompetence on the one end, and the dairy farmers are resorting to street protests to ensure necessary market for their expanding milk production on the other. What a big surprise to one who had experienced the critical situation of Nepal's Milk Market of 1970's and 1980's..............

A baseline and need identification survey of agro-ecological research sites at Chambas, Maduwa, Chhahara and Bhakimli representing from river basin to high hill domains, respectively was carried out at different periods from February to May 1998. The participatory rural appraisal was the main technique of data collection. The survey resul ts reveal that the sites are located not so far from road heads. Rainfall pattern is almost similar at all the sites with monsoon generally running from June/July to September/October……….

A baseline and need identification survey of agro-ecological research sites at Chambas, Maduwa, Chhahara and Bhakimli representing from river basin to high hill domains, respectively was carried out at different periods from February to May 1998. The participatory rural appraisal was the main technique of data collection. The survey resul ts reveal that the sites are located not so far from road heads. Rainfall pattern is almost similar at all the sites with monsoon generally running from June/July to September/October……….

 Rice production systems in Nepal Terai is complex and diverse. This complexity and diversity is the result of inherent heterogeneity of fanners' resource endowments, sociocultural and agroecological diversity of the rice production environment. This study attempts to capture this essence of diversity and complexity of rice production systems through economic analysis, yield gap, production constraints and production systems characteristics in order to address the areas for rice technological intervention and improvement………………

 Rice production systems in Nepal Terai is complex and diverse. This complexity and diversity is the result of inherent heterogeneity of fanners' resource endowments, sociocultural and agroecological diversity of the rice production environment. This study attempts to capture this essence of diversity and complexity of rice production systems through economic analysis, yield gap, production constraints and production systems characteristics in order to address the areas for rice technological intervention and improvement………………

A field experiment was carried out in 1997 and 1998 at Ginger Research Program Kapurkot, Salyan (1480 masl) to find out the cost effective seed rhizome size and spacing for planting to get the maximum yield. Both the factors, spacing and seed size caused the significant difference on crop yield. Economic analysis for marginal rate of return indicated that planting rhizomes 30 cm apart between and within row was found appropriate spacing for mid-hill conditions. Seed to yield ratio was found decreasing with the increase in seed size. The highest yield (41.8 t/ha)  was obtained from the large size seed rhizomes (90 gm), whereas marginal rate of return was minimum (44.7%) when planted large size rhizomes. The result clearly revealed that spacing 30 cm X 30 cm and seed size of 60 gm gave the highest marginal rate of return (79.6%). Therefore, the seed rate of ginger for Salyan cultivar, 6.0 t/ha was found cost effective for mid-hill conditions.

A field experiment was carried out in 1997 and 1998 at Ginger Research Program Kapurkot, Salyan (1480 masl) to find out the cost effective seed rhizome size and spacing for planting to get the maximum yield. Both the factors, spacing and seed size caused the significant difference on crop yield. Economic analysis for marginal rate of return indicated that planting rhizomes 30 cm apart between and within row was found appropriate spacing for mid-hill conditions. Seed to yield ratio was found decreasing with the increase in seed size. The highest yield (41.8 t/ha)  was obtained from the large size seed rhizomes (90 gm), whereas marginal rate of return was minimum (44.7%) when planted large size rhizomes. The result clearly revealed that spacing 30 cm X 30 cm and seed size of 60 gm gave the highest marginal rate of return (79.6%). Therefore, the seed rate of ginger for Salyan cultivar, 6.0 t/ha was found cost effective for mid-hill conditions.

Hardinath Agriculture Farm (HAF) in Nepal practiced Sesbania cannabina (Dhaincha) as pre-rice green manure annually in 20 ha for more than 20 years. Besides, the recommended doses of phosphorous and potassium, the total nitrogen requirement was fulfilled by using 50% of chemical nitrogenous fertilizer plus Dhaincha as pre-rice green manure. The average national productivity of paddy in Nepal is 2.4 t/ha whereas, the HAF's was 3.75 t/ha. The HAF on an average was producing 120 metric tons of foundation paddy seed annually with better agronomic practices for the last 20 years with more than I :2 ratio of revenue. Such type of practical long-term experience of integrating chemical fertilizer with the pre-rice green manure in irrigated lowland fields of Terai (93 mast) is the model practice  for others. This can be practically said as environment friendly plus sustainable, low-cost successful story and can be replicated in other parts of the world having similar agro-ecological zones.

Hardinath Agriculture Farm (HAF) in Nepal practiced Sesbania cannabina (Dhaincha) as pre-rice green manure annually in 20 ha for more than 20 years. Besides, the recommended doses of phosphorous and potassium, the total nitrogen requirement was fulfilled by using 50% of chemical nitrogenous fertilizer plus Dhaincha as pre-rice green manure. The average national productivity of paddy in Nepal is 2.4 t/ha whereas, the HAF's was 3.75 t/ha. The HAF on an average was producing 120 metric tons of foundation paddy seed annually with better agronomic practices for the last 20 years with more than I :2 ratio of revenue. Such type of practical long-term experience of integrating chemical fertilizer with the pre-rice green manure in irrigated lowland fields of Terai (93 mast) is the model practice  for others. This can be practically said as environment friendly plus sustainable, low-cost successful story and can be replicated in other parts of the world having similar agro-ecological zones.

Taro ( Colocasia esculenta) is an important traditional vegetable crop throughout the h i l ls and plains of Nepal. It is generally grown on marginal land of almost all households by different ethinic groups for its nutritious leaves, petioles, flowers and tubers either in fresh or processed form. Taro cultivars are generated and selected by farmers and they are the main custodians of both genetic and cultural diversity. Though the crop is common in both home garden as well as larger agro-ecosytem, it is uniquely adapted to home garden conditions where the crop provides the need of food security. Different types of taro are cultivated for the use of different parts and accordi ng to relative use val ue, farmers use local name annexing karkalo or pidalu . Considering the separate names given by farmers and phenotypic look of tubers there is need for further identification test using farmers' perception, agromorphologic traits and isozyme test.

Taro ( Colocasia esculenta) is an important traditional vegetable crop throughout the h i l ls and plains of Nepal. It is generally grown on marginal land of almost all households by different ethinic groups for its nutritious leaves, petioles, flowers and tubers either in fresh or processed form. Taro cultivars are generated and selected by farmers and they are the main custodians of both genetic and cultural diversity. Though the crop is common in both home garden as well as larger agro-ecosytem, it is uniquely adapted to home garden conditions where the crop provides the need of food security. Different types of taro are cultivated for the use of different parts and accordi ng to relative use val ue, farmers use local name annexing karkalo or pidalu . Considering the separate names given by farmers and phenotypic look of tubers there is need for further identification test using farmers' perception, agromorphologic traits and isozyme test.

Wheat cultivation using no-til l technique was first started at the bank of Ridi Khola in Palpa district. Even before the initiation of wheat research, no-till wheat cultivation was practiced by the farmers of Bhaktapur district. Research on no-till wheat cultivation was initiated  at Janakapur  and Bhairahawa during m id seventies to minimize yield loss because of late planting……………..

Wheat cultivation using no-til l technique was first started at the bank of Ridi Khola in Palpa district. Even before the initiation of wheat research, no-till wheat cultivation was practiced by the farmers of Bhaktapur district. Research on no-till wheat cultivation was initiated  at Janakapur  and Bhairahawa during m id seventies to minimize yield loss because of late planting……………..

Field experiments were conducted during the rainy season of 1994, 1995 and 1996 at the Rice Research Program, Parwanipur under rainfed lowland conditions with the objective to find out the effect of seedling age on grain yield of three rice genotypes Radha 11, RP 1017 and RD 21. Seedling up to 65 days old did not reduce the grain yield of these rice genotypes. Days from seeding to maturity increased with the increase in age of seedling. The results suggest that farmer can use older seedling of these genotypes under rainfed lowland conditions………….

Field experiments were conducted during the rainy season of 1994, 1995 and 1996 at the Rice Research Program, Parwanipur under rainfed lowland conditions with the objective to find out the effect of seedling age on grain yield of three rice genotypes Radha 11, RP 1017 and RD 21. Seedling up to 65 days old did not reduce the grain yield of these rice genotypes. Days from seeding to maturity increased with the increase in age of seedling. The results suggest that farmer can use older seedling of these genotypes under rainfed lowland conditions………….

Experiments were conducted at the research farm and greenhouse of International Rice Research Institute (IRRJ), Philippines during the dry and wet seasons of 1994 (Mar.-Nov.). The field experiment was conducted in two water regimes (well-watered and water deficit), laid out in a split-plot design with four replications subjected to two N levels (0 and 100 kg N/ha) as main plots and two rice cultivars (IR72 and PSBRcl4) as subplot treatments. The greenhouse experiment was laid out in a factorial RCBD with three repl ications using same water levels but different N (50 and 120 kg/ha) levels and rice cultivars (IR72, PSBRcl4 , IR42 and KDML105). The objective of the experiments was to investigate the influence of drought and. N limitations on the performance and adaptation of rice cultivars and the plastic responses over the stress environments……………..

Experiments were conducted at the research farm and greenhouse of International Rice Research Institute (IRRJ), Philippines during the dry and wet seasons of 1994 (Mar.-Nov.). The field experiment was conducted in two water regimes (well-watered and water deficit), laid out in a split-plot design with four replications subjected to two N levels (0 and 100 kg N/ha) as main plots and two rice cultivars (IR72 and PSBRcl4) as subplot treatments. The greenhouse experiment was laid out in a factorial RCBD with three repl ications using same water levels but different N (50 and 120 kg/ha) levels and rice cultivars (IR72, PSBRcl4 , IR42 and KDML105). The objective of the experiments was to investigate the influence of drought and. N limitations on the performance and adaptation of rice cultivars and the plastic responses over the stress environments……………..

Agronomical research in Nepal was initiated in 1954 in Singha Durbar after the. Agronomy Section was created in 1953 (Annual Report, DOACR 1968). In 1965, this section was transferred to Khumaltar. Other eight experimental farms were also established in different agro-ecological regions of the country under this section. Recommendation of improved varieties of food grain crops and their cultivation practices were initiated in a modest way. In the beginning, most of the agronomical research was focused on varietal improvement and few on crop management. After the establishment of the crop commodity programs in 1972, agronomical research was further strengthened………………

Agronomical research in Nepal was initiated in 1954 in Singha Durbar after the. Agronomy Section was created in 1953 (Annual Report, DOACR 1968). In 1965, this section was transferred to Khumaltar. Other eight experimental farms were also established in different agro-ecological regions of the country under this section. Recommendation of improved varieties of food grain crops and their cultivation practices were initiated in a modest way. In the beginning, most of the agronomical research was focused on varietal improvement and few on crop management. After the establishment of the crop commodity programs in 1972, agronomical research was further strengthened………………

Six varieties of radish (Raphanus sativus Linn.) were evaluated at Agriculture Research Station (Horticulture), Malepatan, Pokhara (848 masl) in two consecutive years 1997 and 1998 to identify the best variety and appropriate seeding date for off-season radish production. A factorial RCB design was applied with three replications. Minu Early, Japanese White Neck, Tokinashi, Lumle-1, Bangaladeshi Red and 40 Days were seeded in last week of August to last week of March with one-month interval. The result revealed that the variety Minu Early and Japanese White Neck produced the highest fresh marketable radish yield of 30.8 and 29.1 t/ha during the main season August and September seeding, respectively………………

Six varieties of radish (Raphanus sativus Linn.) were evaluated at Agriculture Research Station (Horticulture), Malepatan, Pokhara (848 masl) in two consecutive years 1997 and 1998 to identify the best variety and appropriate seeding date for off-season radish production. A factorial RCB design was applied with three replications. Minu Early, Japanese White Neck, Tokinashi, Lumle-1, Bangaladeshi Red and 40 Days were seeded in last week of August to last week of March with one-month interval. The result revealed that the variety Minu Early and Japanese White Neck produced the highest fresh marketable radish yield of 30.8 and 29.1 t/ha during the main season August and September seeding, respectively………………

Two pot experiments were conducted during winter and rainy season, 1998 in a randomized complete block design to evaluate the effect of growing media on the growth and nutrient content of Azolla pinnata and A. filiculoides. Phosphorus was applied at the rate of 50 kg P₂O₅ per ha in all treatments……………

Two pot experiments were conducted during winter and rainy season, 1998 in a randomized complete block design to evaluate the effect of growing media on the growth and nutrient content of Azolla pinnata and A. filiculoides. Phosphorus was applied at the rate of 50 kg P₂O₅ per ha in all treatments……………

Three nitrogen levels (30, 60 and 90 kg/ha) with and without green manuring (GM) of Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea ) and cowpea (Phaseolus vulgaris) were inter­ cropped with maize. The objectives were to find out (a) the best combination of different GM crops with N levels, and (b) to compare residual effects of those GM on the grain yield of succeeding crop rapeseed………………..

Three nitrogen levels (30, 60 and 90 kg/ha) with and without green manuring (GM) of Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea ) and cowpea (Phaseolus vulgaris) were inter­ cropped with maize. The objectives were to find out (a) the best combination of different GM crops with N levels, and (b) to compare residual effects of those GM on the grain yield of succeeding crop rapeseed………………..

Two hundred and sixty one soil samples from cultivated land representing  river basin (<600 m), low (600-1000 m),  mid (1000-1600 m) and high (1600-2300 m) hills from Gorkha, Lamjung, Tanahun, Kaski, Parbat, Myagdi , Baglung, Syangja and  Palpa  districts  were  collected  during 1994. The objectives of this study were to determine soil pH, organic carbon, macro (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) and micro-nutrients (zinc, iron, manganese, copper and boron); to find out the effect of land types (Khet and Bari) and soil texture on soil fertility; and the relationships of plant nutrients in the soil. Soil samples were analyzed with standard laboratory procedures………………….

Two hundred and sixty one soil samples from cultivated land representing  river basin (<600 m), low (600-1000 m),  mid (1000-1600 m) and high (1600-2300 m) hills from Gorkha, Lamjung, Tanahun, Kaski, Parbat, Myagdi , Baglung, Syangja and  Palpa  districts  were  collected  during 1994. The objectives of this study were to determine soil pH, organic carbon, macro (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) and micro-nutrients (zinc, iron, manganese, copper and boron); to find out the effect of land types (Khet and Bari) and soil texture on soil fertility; and the relationships of plant nutrients in the soil. Soil samples were analyzed with standard laboratory procedures………………….

Botrytis gray mold (BGM) is a major disease of chickpea. The disease is prevalent throughout the chickpea growing areas. Incidence and severity of the disease are more in eastern Terai than western Terai. Up to 100% yield loss is reported due to BGM in experimental plots. The annual yield loss in farmers' fields is about 15%. The disease generally appears from second to third week of February. None of the chickpea genotypes so far tested was resistant to this disease. Genotypes ICCL 87305, ICCL 87322, ICCV 92501 and ICCV 88506 were tolerant. An experiment with four sowing dates were and 5 chickpea varieties showed that delay sowing (November 25 and December 3) could reduce disease intensity but without increase in yield. Spraying of fungicide Ronilan was more effective in susceptible cultivar H 208 than in tolerant cultivar ICCL 87322. The wider spacing scored less disease and high yield was recorded………..

Botrytis gray mold (BGM) is a major disease of chickpea. The disease is prevalent throughout the chickpea growing areas. Incidence and severity of the disease are more in eastern Terai than western Terai. Up to 100% yield loss is reported due to BGM in experimental plots. The annual yield loss in farmers' fields is about 15%. The disease generally appears from second to third week of February. None of the chickpea genotypes so far tested was resistant to this disease. Genotypes ICCL 87305, ICCL 87322, ICCV 92501 and ICCV 88506 were tolerant. An experiment with four sowing dates were and 5 chickpea varieties showed that delay sowing (November 25 and December 3) could reduce disease intensity but without increase in yield. Spraying of fungicide Ronilan was more effective in susceptible cultivar H 208 than in tolerant cultivar ICCL 87322. The wider spacing scored less disease and high yield was recorded………..

An experiment to study the effect of different paddy seed storage structures such as metal bin, paddy straw ball, Ghyampo, mud bin (Dehri) and jute bag on survivability of Drechslera oryzae, was conducted in randomized complete block design at Rampur, Chitwan. Three were three replications. Five kilograms seed of Masuli variety with nine percent initial infection of Drechslera 0ryzaewas stored in each storage structure. Percentage of infected gr ains was assessed using blotter technique at two months interval. Assessments were done on 24 November, 22nd January, 22"d March, 5th June and 24th July 1997. Percentage of infected seed grains was decreased to three percent from nine percent during whole storage period in metal bin. However, the effect of other storage structures was inconsistent in decreasing percentage of infected seed grains during storage………….

An experiment to study the effect of different paddy seed storage structures such as metal bin, paddy straw ball, Ghyampo, mud bin (Dehri) and jute bag on survivability of Drechslera oryzae, was conducted in randomized complete block design at Rampur, Chitwan. Three were three replications. Five kilograms seed of Masuli variety with nine percent initial infection of Drechslera 0ryzaewas stored in each storage structure. Percentage of infected gr ains was assessed using blotter technique at two months interval. Assessments were done on 24 November, 22nd January, 22"d March, 5th June and 24th July 1997. Percentage of infected seed grains was decreased to three percent from nine percent during whole storage period in metal bin. However, the effect of other storage structures was inconsistent in decreasing percentage of infected seed grains during storage………….

Alternaria leaf blight caused by Alternaria brassicae is one of the economically important diseases of rapeseed. The pathogen infects stem, leaf, siliqua and seed causing significant losses in seed yield. An experiment for reducing severity of infection in the crop was conducted during 1996 and 1997. The disease was significantly reduced by the application of iprodione (Rovral) and mancozeb (Dithane M-45) over control. A correlation was measured between field infection and seed infection. The correlation was positive and highly significant which shows that percent of seed infection with A. brassicae depends upon the severity of infection in the field.

Alternaria leaf blight caused by Alternaria brassicae is one of the economically important diseases of rapeseed. The pathogen infects stem, leaf, siliqua and seed causing significant losses in seed yield. An experiment for reducing severity of infection in the crop was conducted during 1996 and 1997. The disease was significantly reduced by the application of iprodione (Rovral) and mancozeb (Dithane M-45) over control. A correlation was measured between field infection and seed infection. The correlation was positive and highly significant which shows that percent of seed infection with A. brassicae depends upon the severity of infection in the field.

Finger millet is the second most important crop after maize in the hills of Nepal. The crop is affected by several diseases and among them, Cercospora leaf spot (CLS) caused by Cercospora eleusine is an important disease in the mid high hills of the country. About 15% grain yield loss has been estimated due to the disease at Kabre, Dolakha. Although the disease is effectively controlled by using resistant varieties, it is difficult to obtain multi-disease resistant finger millet cultivars. Besides, there are very few disease resistant recommended varieties. In an attempt to control CLS disease of finger millet four fungicides (Bavistin, Bitox-50 , Dithane M-45 and Hinosan) were evaluated and sprayed separately at stem elongation, heading and flowering stages

Finger millet is the second most important crop after maize in the hills of Nepal. The crop is affected by several diseases and among them, Cercospora leaf spot (CLS) caused by Cercospora eleusine is an important disease in the mid high hills of the country. About 15% grain yield loss has been estimated due to the disease at Kabre, Dolakha. Although the disease is effectively controlled by using resistant varieties, it is difficult to obtain multi-disease resistant finger millet cultivars. Besides, there are very few disease resistant recommended varieties. In an attempt to control CLS disease of finger millet four fungicides (Bavistin, Bitox-50 , Dithane M-45 and Hinosan) were evaluated and sprayed separately at stem elongation, heading and flowering stages

Sheath blight caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn, is one of the most important diseases of rice throughout the world. In Nepal, sheath blight is becoming one of the major diseases in different rice growing areas in the country. No reliable source of resistance has been identified. Because of this problem, the potential of host plant defense mechanism involving ·chitinase was studied. One hundred and thirteen varieties of rice were selected. The varieties were grouped into three classes based on their reaction to R. solani……….

Sheath blight caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn, is one of the most important diseases of rice throughout the world. In Nepal, sheath blight is becoming one of the major diseases in different rice growing areas in the country. No reliable source of resistance has been identified. Because of this problem, the potential of host plant defense mechanism involving ·chitinase was studied. One hundred and thirteen varieties of rice were selected. The varieties were grouped into three classes based on their reaction to R. solani……….

Pathogenic fungi attacking citrus grown in Pokhara valley were isolated. The mode of infection, symptoms and the extent of damage caused by them were studied. Brief notes on some important fungi causing citrus decline in Pokhara valley are given in this article……………….

Pathogenic fungi attacking citrus grown in Pokhara valley were isolated. The mode of infection, symptoms and the extent of damage caused by them were studied. Brief notes on some important fungi causing citrus decline in Pokhara valley are given in this article……………….

The population of indigenous vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi was determined in three cropping patterns namely, com-peanut, rice-peanut and com-fallow at three locations (Plaridel , Compact Farm and Patrocinio) in the Philippines. The most probable number method was used for the estimation of the VAM fungal population. The indigenous VAM fungal population varied with cropping pattern, location and time…………..

The population of indigenous vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi was determined in three cropping patterns namely, com-peanut, rice-peanut and com-fallow at three locations (Plaridel , Compact Farm and Patrocinio) in the Philippines. The most probable number method was used for the estimation of the VAM fungal population. The indigenous VAM fungal population varied with cropping pattern, location and time…………..

Twenty-nine   tomato   genotypes   were   evaluated   against   bacterial   wilt   pathogen   Ralstonia solanacearum under screenhouse conditions at Khumaltar and under field conditions at Panchkhal during 1995-1996. Of them, 15 genotypes showed resistant to moderately resistant reactions under greenhouse conditions whereas only two genotypes BL 342 and BL 333 were found resistant and moderately resistant, respectively under  field conditions…………

Twenty-nine   tomato   genotypes   were   evaluated   against   bacterial   wilt   pathogen   Ralstonia solanacearum under screenhouse conditions at Khumaltar and under field conditions at Panchkhal during 1995-1996. Of them, 15 genotypes showed resistant to moderately resistant reactions under greenhouse conditions whereas only two genotypes BL 342 and BL 333 were found resistant and moderately resistant, respectively under  field conditions…………

The existence of citrus virus and virus-like diseases was not known in Nepal until late fifties when a mass of grafted citrus planting materials were introduced to the country from Saharanpur  (U.P.), India. The planting materials brought from India were planted at Horticulture Research Station, Pokhara. The plants began to express symptoms of decline since 1964. Then experts were invited from FAO, USAID/Nepal and India. All the experts agreed in a point that the causes of citrus decline in Pokhara were citrus greening disease, tristeza virus, and exocortis, xyloporosis, wooly gall and bud union crease.

The existence of citrus virus and virus-like diseases was not known in Nepal until late fifties when a mass of grafted citrus planting materials were introduced to the country from Saharanpur  (U.P.), India. The planting materials brought from India were planted at Horticulture Research Station, Pokhara. The plants began to express symptoms of decline since 1964. Then experts were invited from FAO, USAID/Nepal and India. All the experts agreed in a point that the causes of citrus decline in Pokhara were citrus greening disease, tristeza virus, and exocortis, xyloporosis, wooly gall and bud union crease.

Wheat disease monitoring in different agro-ecological zones in the western hills of Nepal revealed that yellow rust outbreak was found increasing during 1997 and 1998 year. The genotypes Annapurna 1, Seri 82, and Pak 81 with Yr9 gene were found moderately susceptible and the score were 60MS, 60MS, and 40MS, respectively. Field screening, disease progression study and seedling test revealed that NL ·810, WK 810, WK 823, NL 731 and NL 769 were resistant to moderately susceptible to yellow rust with slow disease development…………

Wheat disease monitoring in different agro-ecological zones in the western hills of Nepal revealed that yellow rust outbreak was found increasing during 1997 and 1998 year. The genotypes Annapurna 1, Seri 82, and Pak 81 with Yr9 gene were found moderately susceptible and the score were 60MS, 60MS, and 40MS, respectively. Field screening, disease progression study and seedling test revealed that NL ·810, WK 810, WK 823, NL 731 and NL 769 were resistant to moderately susceptible to yellow rust with slow disease development…………

Grain loss assessment in the field and the storage due to rats in three villages of Kathmandu valley was made during 1995-97. The movement of house rat in rice and wheat fields from farmers' houses was found up to 100 and 150 m, respectively. In the standing crops of rice and wheat the damage caused by the rats was estimated 575 kg/ha and 1132 kg/ha, respectively. The bait consumption was 9.4, 17.0, 19.0 and 25 gm/rat/night in spring, summer, autumn and winter, respectively………………

Grain loss assessment in the field and the storage due to rats in three villages of Kathmandu valley was made during 1995-97. The movement of house rat in rice and wheat fields from farmers' houses was found up to 100 and 150 m, respectively. In the standing crops of rice and wheat the damage caused by the rats was estimated 575 kg/ha and 1132 kg/ha, respectively. The bait consumption was 9.4, 17.0, 19.0 and 25 gm/rat/night in spring, summer, autumn and winter, respectively………………

An experiment was conducted at Khumaltar, Lalitpur during wet-seasons of 1983 and 1984. The local cultivar Sathiya soyabean was found tolerant or non-preferred to the green stink bug (Nezara antennata) damages as compared to the exotic cultivars namely, Hill, Ransom and Lee. These soyabeans planted at four different time intervals showed variations in crowding and repulsion effect on the leaf feeding insect, Chauliops fallax and its predatory spiders, namely Lycosa sp., Oxyopes sp. and Tetragnatha…………..

An experiment was conducted at Khumaltar, Lalitpur during wet-seasons of 1983 and 1984. The local cultivar Sathiya soyabean was found tolerant or non-preferred to the green stink bug (Nezara antennata) damages as compared to the exotic cultivars namely, Hill, Ransom and Lee. These soyabeans planted at four different time intervals showed variations in crowding and repulsion effect on the leaf feeding insect, Chauliops fallax and its predatory spiders, namely Lycosa sp., Oxyopes sp. and Tetragnatha…………..

Traditional beekeeping is a cultural heritage in Nepal. Among available four species of indigenous honeybees , Apiscerana is the only cultivated one. The exotic honeybee A.mellifera is also becoming popular. At present, both cultivated species have been practiced in modem beehives. But major constraints and management practices on honeybee production have not been identified under major agro-ecological conditions……………….

Traditional beekeeping is a cultural heritage in Nepal. Among available four species of indigenous honeybees , Apiscerana is the only cultivated one. The exotic honeybee A.mellifera is also becoming popular. At present, both cultivated species have been practiced in modem beehives. But major constraints and management practices on honeybee production have not been identified under major agro-ecological conditions……………….

An experiment was carried out to identify the effectiveness of Acorus calamus (Bojo) against weevil in stored maize cobs under mid and low altitude conditions. A.calamus rhizome powder and Acorus calamus rhizome pieces were applied at the rate of 30 gm/kg grain and placed at the bottom, middle and top layers of maize cobs in the Kunio storage system. No treatment was given for control…………..

An experiment was carried out to identify the effectiveness of Acorus calamus (Bojo) against weevil in stored maize cobs under mid and low altitude conditions. A.calamus rhizome powder and Acorus calamus rhizome pieces were applied at the rate of 30 gm/kg grain and placed at the bottom, middle and top layers of maize cobs in the Kunio storage system. No treatment was given for control…………..

Yarsha watershed encompasses four village development committees viz. Namdu, Gairemudi, Kabre and Mrige. The total area of the watershed is about 5338 ha and the altitude ranges between 1000 and 3000 metres above sea level (masl). The vegetation within the watershed area is highly diverse. The lower altitude area is dominated by Shorea robusta and Pinus roxburghii and the higher altitude dominated by Quercus species………..

Yarsha watershed encompasses four village development committees viz. Namdu, Gairemudi, Kabre and Mrige. The total area of the watershed is about 5338 ha and the altitude ranges between 1000 and 3000 metres above sea level (masl). The vegetation within the watershed area is highly diverse. The lower altitude area is dominated by Shorea robusta and Pinus roxburghii and the higher altitude dominated by Quercus species………..

Reproductive biology of house rat (Rattus rattus) was studied under laboratory conditions at Khumaltar during 1995-97. Successful mating was found up to 90, 80, 90 and 70% in spring, summer, autumn and winter season, respectively. Gestation period was 20-23 days with the birth rate of 4-13 and sex ratio of 1:1. Male rat became sexually matured 11 weeks after birth while it took 13 weeks for female rat. Among tested diets continuous feeding of rat with K-diet-1+cod liver oil up to 55 weeks was found superior to increase body weight. The relation of dry weight of eye Jens was found directly proportional to the age of the rats.

Reproductive biology of house rat (Rattus rattus) was studied under laboratory conditions at Khumaltar during 1995-97. Successful mating was found up to 90, 80, 90 and 70% in spring, summer, autumn and winter season, respectively. Gestation period was 20-23 days with the birth rate of 4-13 and sex ratio of 1:1. Male rat became sexually matured 11 weeks after birth while it took 13 weeks for female rat. Among tested diets continuous feeding of rat with K-diet-1+cod liver oil up to 55 weeks was found superior to increase body weight. The relation of dry weight of eye Jens was found directly proportional to the age of the rats.

Kiko goats developed in New Zealand suitable for harsh environmental conditions were imported for crossbreeding with Khari/Hill goats both in the east and west hills of Nepal in early 1990's. Frozen semen was used for inseminating the hill goats. Conception rate was very low and hence it was felt to have all the goats at one station. All the goats were, therefore, handed over to Agricultural Research Station (Goat), Bandipur in 1993 by Pakhribas Agricultural Centre (PAC). Since then the study has been implementing at ARS, Bandipur. The monitoring on weight traits, litter traits and dam traits was made………….

Kiko goats developed in New Zealand suitable for harsh environmental conditions were imported for crossbreeding with Khari/Hill goats both in the east and west hills of Nepal in early 1990's. Frozen semen was used for inseminating the hill goats. Conception rate was very low and hence it was felt to have all the goats at one station. All the goats were, therefore, handed over to Agricultural Research Station (Goat), Bandipur in 1993 by Pakhribas Agricultural Centre (PAC). Since then the study has been implementing at ARS, Bandipur. The monitoring on weight traits, litter traits and dam traits was made………….

A study was conducted on British, German, Chinese and Russian Angora rabbits on kindling mortality at Swine and Avian Research Program, Khumaltar. The results showed that British, Chinese, German and Russian Angora rabbit weaned 4.85±1.35, 4.77±1.31,  3.61±1.96 and 3.25±2.5, respectively. Similarly, the mortality rates of the bunnies were found 24.4%, 23.2%, 29.0% and 35% for British, Chinese, German and Russian Angora rabbit, respectively. The overall mortality in the flock was 27%.

A study was conducted on British, German, Chinese and Russian Angora rabbits on kindling mortality at Swine and Avian Research Program, Khumaltar. The results showed that British, Chinese, German and Russian Angora rabbit weaned 4.85±1.35, 4.77±1.31,  3.61±1.96 and 3.25±2.5, respectively. Similarly, the mortality rates of the bunnies were found 24.4%, 23.2%, 29.0% and 35% for British, Chinese, German and Russian Angora rabbit, respectively. The overall mortality in the flock was 27%.

The genetic resistance of three native Nepalese sheep breeds namely Kage, Baruwal and Lampuchhre was studied against Haemonchus contortus infection by primary and challenge infection of H. contortus larvae. The parasitological , hematological and biochemical responses of these breeds indicated that Kage breed was relatively superior to the Baruwal or Lampuchhre breeds against H. contortus infection. The Kage Iambs have lower worm establishment, lower worm burden and low faecal egg counts that the other two breeds at primary and challenge infection. Similarly, these animals lost less weight to infection than the other breeds indicating their superior ability to withstand the effects of worm infection.

The genetic resistance of three native Nepalese sheep breeds namely Kage, Baruwal and Lampuchhre was studied against Haemonchus contortus infection by primary and challenge infection of H. contortus larvae. The parasitological , hematological and biochemical responses of these breeds indicated that Kage breed was relatively superior to the Baruwal or Lampuchhre breeds against H. contortus infection. The Kage Iambs have lower worm establishment, lower worm burden and low faecal egg counts that the other two breeds at primary and challenge infection. Similarly, these animals lost less weight to infection than the other breeds indicating their superior ability to withstand the effects of worm infection.

Sufficient food and nutrition is necessary to increase the physical and mental capacity of the people. An adequate quantity of balanced and nutritious food helps to build up the efficiency of the people and is a primary indicator of quality of life, human welfare and development (Sansoucy et al., 1995). Reports of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) shows that the diet of the inhabitants of the developing countries is hardly sufficient in terms of dietary calories and mainly from vegetable origin and in short in animal proteins (Hazarika,1990)…………….

Sufficient food and nutrition is necessary to increase the physical and mental capacity of the people. An adequate quantity of balanced and nutritious food helps to build up the efficiency of the people and is a primary indicator of quality of life, human welfare and development (Sansoucy et al., 1995). Reports of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) shows that the diet of the inhabitants of the developing countries is hardly sufficient in terms of dietary calories and mainly from vegetable origin and in short in animal proteins (Hazarika,1990)…………….

A study was conducted to investigate the meat production performance of different color types of goat (Ghorlie, Dhobini, Kali, Seti and Singari). A total of 42 local male goats aged between 22 and 24 months old were slaughtered by the local method. The mean slaughter weight of the goats was 21 .5±3.32 kg. Data on meat production performance were analyzed using the least square analysis. The l ive weight of different color goats during slaughter was non-significant………….

A study was conducted to investigate the meat production performance of different color types of goat (Ghorlie, Dhobini, Kali, Seti and Singari). A total of 42 local male goats aged between 22 and 24 months old were slaughtered by the local method. The mean slaughter weight of the goats was 21 .5±3.32 kg. Data on meat production performance were analyzed using the least square analysis. The l ive weight of different color goats during slaughter was non-significant………….

A study was conducted to investigate the meat production performance of different color types of goat (Ghorlie, Dhobini, Kali, Seti and Singari). A total of 42 local male goats aged between 22 and 24 months old were slaughtered by the local method. The mean slaughter weight of the goats was 21 .5±3.32 kg. Data on meat production performance were analyzed using the least square analysis. The l ive weight of different color goats during slaughter was non-significant………….

A study was conducted to investigate the meat production performance of different color types of goat (Ghorlie, Dhobini, Kali, Seti and Singari). A total of 42 local male goats aged between 22 and 24 months old were slaughtered by the local method. The mean slaughter weight of the goats was 21 .5±3.32 kg. Data on meat production performance were analyzed using the least square analysis. The l ive weight of different color goats during slaughter was non-significant………….

The cause of the posterior paralytic syndrome in goats of mid-western region of Nepal is not due to poisoning, traumatic injury to the lumbar region, Helminths parasitism and nutritional deficiency of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D or vitamin A. The disease is suspected to be caused by parasitism of the spinal cord.

The cause of the posterior paralytic syndrome in goats of mid-western region of Nepal is not due to poisoning, traumatic injury to the lumbar region, Helminths parasitism and nutritional deficiency of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D or vitamin A. The disease is suspected to be caused by parasitism of the spinal cord.

A questionnaire survey was conducted in the three selected study sites and Agricultural Research Station (ARS, Goat) at Bandipur for the preliminary study on diseases with special reference to respiratory problems in goats of Tanahu District. Data on the purposes of goat keeping, problems of goat keeping, disease problems in goats, systems of goat keeping etc. were recorded………………..

A questionnaire survey was conducted in the three selected study sites and Agricultural Research Station (ARS, Goat) at Bandipur for the preliminary study on diseases with special reference to respiratory problems in goats of Tanahu District. Data on the purposes of goat keeping, problems of goat keeping, disease problems in goats, systems of goat keeping etc. were recorded………………..

A trial was conducted to assess the productivity, palatability of major fodder tree and utilization of tree leaves by goats in stall-fed management. Four different fodder trees spec.ies such as Badahar (Artocarpus lakoocha), Tanki ( Bauhinid purpurea ), Dabdabe (Garuga pinnata ) , Nimaro (Ficus roxburghii) were tagged and lopped to get the tree leaves production. Morphological characters such as branch extension, tree height, tree circumference (breast height) were recorded. Leaves were analyzed for proximate composition. Sixteen growing goat hoggets were assigned to four types of tree leaves, used to estimate the utilization of tree leaves, and feed conversion efficiency…………...

A trial was conducted to assess the productivity, palatability of major fodder tree and utilization of tree leaves by goats in stall-fed management. Four different fodder trees spec.ies such as Badahar (Artocarpus lakoocha), Tanki ( Bauhinid purpurea ), Dabdabe (Garuga pinnata ) , Nimaro (Ficus roxburghii) were tagged and lopped to get the tree leaves production. Morphological characters such as branch extension, tree height, tree circumference (breast height) were recorded. Leaves were analyzed for proximate composition. Sixteen growing goat hoggets were assigned to four types of tree leaves, used to estimate the utilization of tree leaves, and feed conversion efficiency…………...

The nutrient content of twenty important fodder trees, namely Bains (Salixsp.) Banjh ( Quercus incana), Bedulo (Ficusclavata),Dhursul, Dudhilo (Ficus nemoralis),  Gaya  (Ardelia  retusa),Harro (Viscum album), Khari (Se/tisaustralis), Kimbu (Marusalba),Pakhuri (Ficusglaberrima ), Thotne (Ficushispida),Kavreo (Ficuslacor), Nimaro (Ficus auriculata) Chuletro (Brassaiopsis hainla), Dabdabe ( Garuga pinnata ) , Khanyu (Ficussemicordata ), Kutmiro (Litseapolyantha), of 4 different agro-ecological research (AER) sites were analysed during three different seasons (monsoon, autumn, late winter). The results showed that these species contain the nutrient in the range of 13.4-56.1% dry matter, 2.1-31.14% total ash, 6.1-30.4% crude protein , 5.5-58.7% acid detergent lignin, 0.86-13.0% hemicellulose, 8.6-34.9% cellulose 0.54-11.0% calcium, and 0.11- 0.66% phosphorus on a dry matter basis. The fluctuation on nutrient content was mainly due to difference in sites, seasons and fodder trees species.

The nutrient content of twenty important fodder trees, namely Bains (Salixsp.) Banjh ( Quercus incana), Bedulo (Ficusclavata),Dhursul, Dudhilo (Ficus nemoralis),  Gaya  (Ardelia  retusa),Harro (Viscum album), Khari (Se/tisaustralis), Kimbu (Marusalba),Pakhuri (Ficusglaberrima ), Thotne (Ficushispida),Kavreo (Ficuslacor), Nimaro (Ficus auriculata) Chuletro (Brassaiopsis hainla), Dabdabe ( Garuga pinnata ) , Khanyu (Ficussemicordata ), Kutmiro (Litseapolyantha), of 4 different agro-ecological research (AER) sites were analysed during three different seasons (monsoon, autumn, late winter). The results showed that these species contain the nutrient in the range of 13.4-56.1% dry matter, 2.1-31.14% total ash, 6.1-30.4% crude protein , 5.5-58.7% acid detergent lignin, 0.86-13.0% hemicellulose, 8.6-34.9% cellulose 0.54-11.0% calcium, and 0.11- 0.66% phosphorus on a dry matter basis. The fluctuation on nutrient content was mainly due to difference in sites, seasons and fodder trees species.

This study was conducted at Banigama and Dhangadhi Village Development Committees of Morang and Siraha districts, respectively. There were two treatments with ten replications. Treatment one was crossbred of pig (Hampshire x local) and treatment two was local. Litter size, daily weight gain from birth to weaning and age at the first maturity of the crossbred were found significantly different from the local one (P<0.05). Litter weight at birth, weaning weight, litter size at weaning, weight, mortality percentage, age at first farrowing and farrowing interval were not significantly different.

This study was conducted at Banigama and Dhangadhi Village Development Committees of Morang and Siraha districts, respectively. There were two treatments with ten replications. Treatment one was crossbred of pig (Hampshire x local) and treatment two was local. Litter size, daily weight gain from birth to weaning and age at the first maturity of the crossbred were found significantly different from the local one (P<0.05). Litter weight at birth, weaning weight, litter size at weaning, weight, mortality percentage, age at first farrowing and farrowing interval were not significantly different.

Occurrence of coccidiosis was monitored in three commercial broiler poultry farms in Lalitpur for one year. Clinical symptoms were droopiness, soiled vent, diarrhoea, sometimes blood tinged, chocolate colour or bloody droppings. Post-mortem lesions were intestine ballooning, pin point haemorrhage, haemorrhagic enteritis, caecal distention and bloody ingesta and some times cheesy materials . There were altogether 123 cases of coccidiosis, of which 51 (41.5%) were caecal coccidiosis, 45 (36.6%) intestinal coccidiosis and 27 (21.9%) mixed coccidiosis…………

Occurrence of coccidiosis was monitored in three commercial broiler poultry farms in Lalitpur for one year. Clinical symptoms were droopiness, soiled vent, diarrhoea, sometimes blood tinged, chocolate colour or bloody droppings. Post-mortem lesions were intestine ballooning, pin point haemorrhage, haemorrhagic enteritis, caecal distention and bloody ingesta and some times cheesy materials . There were altogether 123 cases of coccidiosis, of which 51 (41.5%) were caecal coccidiosis, 45 (36.6%) intestinal coccidiosis and 27 (21.9%) mixed coccidiosis…………